2.2.1 Events

The events sector of the tourism industry is a dynamic, growing and global sector. In the past couple of decades, festival and event tourism has been one of the fastest growing sections of the world leisure industry (Getz, 1991; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001) and has received increasing attention by academic researchers. Over the past decade, events have grown in terms of number, diversity and popularity (Arcodia and Reid, 2004). Allen et al (2005) noted that events are central to our culture.
The difficulty to define events is evident in literature. There is a limited uniformity of terms and definitions of event. One of the reasons for it is that event industry is now so vast and there are so many different types of events that it is impossible to provide one definition that would include all aspects of event. However, many authors have discussed the definition of events (Shone and Parry, 2004; Van der Wagen, 2004; Allen et al., 2005; Goldblatt, 2005; Bowdin et al., 2006; Getz; 2006).
For example, according to Getz (1997, p. 4-11), events ‘are temporary occurrences, either planned or unplanned, with a finite length of time’ (quoted in Tassiopoulos, 2005, p. 11). For Goldblatt (1997, p.2) a special event is a ‘unique moment in time celebrated with ceremony and vital to satisfy specific needs’. Allen, McDonnell, and Harris (2002, p. 11) describe special events as, ‘constituting specific rituals, presentations, performances or celebrations that are occasionally planned and created to mark a special occasion or to achieve particular social, cultural or corporate goals and objectives’.
Many authors have focused their research on defining different characteristics of events; however, there is still little evidence of clear differentiation of different types of events. Bowdin et al (2006, p. 30) conclude that ‘events vary in their size and impact, with terms such as special events, mega-events, hallmark events and major events used to describe and categorize them’.
Shone and Parry (2004) indicate the differences in event complexity and uncertainty to produce a typology of all types of events.
Tassiopoulos (2005, p. 10) pointed out that ‘events consist of two types: planned and unplanned, ‘planned events’ consist of two categories: routine, ordinary or common and special events. ‘Special events’ includes the following categories: minor special events and major special events. ‘Major special events’ contain two categories: hallmark events and mega-events’.
Events are an important motivator of tourism, and are used in the development and marketing plans of most destinations. Equally, ‘event management’ is a growing field in which tourists constitute a potential market for planned events and the tourism industry has become a vital stakeholder in their success and attractiveness.

2.2.2 Events tourism

The term ‘events tourism’ was not widely used, if at all, prior to 1987 when The New Zealand Tourist and Publicity Department (1987) reported: ‘Event tourism is an important and rapidly growing segment of international tourism’ (Getz, 2007).
Events are becoming established as an integral and major part of tourism development and marketing strategies. They are important because they provide economic support and authenticity. Many cities rely on the revenue from these events and events tourism can enhance a destination’s image development.
Event tourism could be defined as the ‘systematic development, planning, marketing and holding of events as tourist attractions’. The goals of event tourism are ‘to create a favorable image for a destination, to expand the traditional tourist season, to spread tourist demand more evenly through an area, and to attract foreign and domestic visitors’ (Tassiopoulos, 2005, p. 4).
Local and regional events can have an advantage of keeping the domestic tourism market active. Smaller local events can make event tourists believe that they are participating in an authentically indigenous activity (Getz, 1991, p. 127, quoted in Tassiopoulos, 2005, p. 5)
Events are playing a significant role in tourism and culture; governments now support and promote events as part of their strategies for economic development and destination marketing.

2.2.3 Events and Tourism in the context of economic downturn

In contrast to previous economic downturns, the current crisis has a global impact that has hit tourism services with particular force (UNWTO, 2009). The global recession has seriously affected the UK leisure and tourism industry and the market is currently facing its most difficult trading climate for many years (Key Note, 2009).
The tourism industry has experienced many financial crises over the years, yet there remain large knowledge gaps about the financial behavior and strategies of firms under financial stress. In addition, little is known about the impacts of financial and economic crises on event sponsorship, business meetings, and corporate travel (Sheldon and Dwyer, 2010)
Both business and consumer confidence were affected, especially with the continuing uncertainties about unemployment and other factors such as exchange rates and the availability of credit. Furthermore, tourists economize on the duration of their stay, scale back their expenditure per night, and tend to sacrifice secondary holidays rather than their main holidays (ETC 2009).
As being part of Tourism industry Events sector was affected by economic downturn as well. For example, the British Meetings & Events Industry Survey reported a sharp drop in spending on corporate events: 33% of respondents saw a reduction in the number of events; 22% reported a reduction in the duration of their events; and 26% reported a reduction in the number of participants (Rob Davidson, 2009). The economic recession of 2008 and 2009 has affected the exhibitions and conferences industry itself (Key Note, 2009).
‘A restructuring of the industry is a necessary outcome from this crisis, and an opportunity for strategic reflection and re-visioning of the tourism product by both private and public sectors are evident’ (Sheldon and Dwyer, 2010).
Due to heavy costs involved in holding events and due to current financial situation, it is important for organizers to find ways to reduce costs. Therefore, it is beneficiary to devote volunteers.
Getz (2007, p. 286) indicated that ‘events have unique human resource needs and challenges, especially because of their usual reliance on volunteer’. Monga (2006) highlighted that the decision to get volunteer labor is typically based on the need to create an event or activity greater than its immediate financial resources would allow. That is why it is vital for volunteer managers to create an appropriate method to obtain, maintain, and retain suitable volunteer labor.
Farrell et al. (1998, p. 288) points out that ‘many major sporting events depend on volunteer labor and that the volunteer team is a critical part of the overall success of many major sporting competitions’. Therefore it is necessary that organizers understand volunteer motivation and their satisfaction with the volunteering experience in order to respond effectively to management needs in the areas of recruitment, retention, and daily operations.
Elstad (2003, p. 99) notes that ‘many event organizations spend considerable resources in recruiting and training volunteers’. Because volunteers are not dependent on the event or festival economically, it is much easier for them to quit as a volunteer compared to quitting in their paid jobs. It is, therefore, quite a challenge to ensure that individuals continue as volunteers in the future.

2.2.4 Volunteering and unemployment

In the past years volunteering has increasingly attracted the interest of many researchers. However, there are relatively limited studies on the impact of job loss on volunteering. Straus (2008) highlighted that these studies are ‘cross-sectional’ and they do not systematically analyze gender differences in the role of volunteering for unemployed.

The total number unemployed in the UK is currently 2.49 million (7.9% of the population) following hundreds of thousands of job losses in 2009. According to the latest forecast from the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development unemployment will peak at 2.8 million in 2010 (BBC News, 2009).
‘Employment rates have fallen for the UK and across the country, with Northern Ireland and Wales having the largest falls, the number of jobs in the UK has fallen, unemployment and the claimant count have increased in all regions’ (Jenkins & Leaker, 2009).
Hill (2009) highlighted that increasing unemployment has focused attention on volunteering as a potential route back to work. One survey found that 88 per cent of unemployed respondents believed that their volunteering would help them get a job (Hirst, 2001). Another found that three-quarters of those aged 16-25 thought that volunteering could have a positive effect on career progression (v, 2008).
‘In Great Britain, the recognition of volunteering as a policy-relevant measure for social integration has a long tradition’ (Susanne Strauß, 2008, p.18). A series of programme, such as Opportunities for Volunteering Fund in 1982 or the Community Opportunities programme in 1998 was launched to support the participation of the unemployed in volunteer work and to promote volunteer work as an alternative labour market instrument (Strauß, 2008). ‘The government has recently invested £8 million in a volunteer brokerage scheme for jobseekers over the next two years’ (Hill, 2009, p.2)
Straus (2008, p. 227) found out that ‘volunteers are more likely to find new employment than non-volunteers. Therefore, volunteering has a positive effect on re-employment chances’. ‘Volunteering can be seen as a route to new or re-/employment for many people; volunteering can develop skills for employability and for new career pathways’ (Volunteering England, 2008).
However, the three largest quantitative studies in the UK to date (Gay and Hatch, 1983; Gay 1998; Hirst, 2001) all fail to establish a direct statistical link between volunteering and job outcomes (Hill, 2009). Therefore there is no clear evidence of the link between volunteering and unemployment, and further studies and research are required.
There is significant number of reports from volunteer-involving organizations (VIOs) of major increases in enquiries about volunteering. The average volunteer centre in London has seen a 90 % increase in the number of people inquiring about opportunities for placements in the past year, according to the umbrella body for volunteer centres in the capital. Increased demand for volunteering is largely a result of rising unemployment in the recession (Kaye Wiggins, 2009).
The research shows that over the past six months, 86% of Volunteer Centres have seen an increase in volunteering enquiries, which represents a further increase on data collected in March 2009 (Volunteering England, 2009).11 % of charities have increased their drive for more volunteers, up from 7 % in survey six months previously (Charities and the economic downturn Charity Commission, September 2009)
‘While research has so far failed to produce convincing statistical proof demonstrating that people who volunteer have an advantage over non-volunteers in the job market, there is a growing body of evidence about what people gain from their volunteering’ (Rochester, 2009, p.7). The benefits include gaining practical experience, acquiring skills, improving interpersonal skills, keeping active and involved, excluding gaps in CV.
Traditionally volunteering is seen as an altruistic act, but due to current situation people seeking route back into employment and therefore many see volunteering as way to gain new skills and get ‘head-start’ in a job market, because volunteering can improve their employability and provide a better chance of entering the labour market.
Volunteers could have different motives for offering their labor, knowledge, skills and time. It is important to understand whether unemployment and economic downturn has an impact on motives of volunteers in order to adopt a more systematic and professional method for their management. The next section explores core motivation’s theories in human resources followed by motives for volunteering.