chapters two and three

Chapter Two
Review of Literature

2.1 Introduction

This chapter first aims to give an overview of event and voluntary sectors. It then aims to cover these two sectors in the context of current economic downturn, exploring the possible impact of the crisis on these sectors. Then it focuses on previous studies on motivation in human resources, followed by motivation to volunteer and motivation with implications of event volunteering. Finally, it covers the employment related motivational factor included in previous studies, in order to explore the possibility of the link between volunteering and employment, and to understand whether the motives of event volunteers could be influenced by the current financial downturn.
The University library posses a large number of secondary literature sources, which are relevant to the research topic. The online catalogue provides a wide collection of Journals, such as International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, Leisure Sciences, Nonprofit Management and Leadership, Annals of Tourism Research and Tourism Management that are published on a regular basis. The online access to these Journals is usually restricted; however the University allows to access online database, which is recognized to be very useful. A wide range of detailed reports of relevant earlier research was found in Event Management Journal, which encompasses researches on festivals, expositions, sport and other special events. In the University library there is an extensive number of books that are prove to be particularly useful to help clarify the research questions and objectives. Yet, the most accessible source of information is found to be Internet, e.g. on line articles and journals.
One of the aims of the present research is to help event managers to recruit volunteers effectively, because, events industry need volunteers as never before. In order to achieve this goal it is first of all vital to have a clear understanding of what events industry is, and how tourism and events sectors are related in the context of economic downturn. It is necessary to have an idea on what is going on in tourism and events sectors and how they have been affected by the downturn. The second important thing that should to be highlighted is voluntary sector in the context of downturn. It needs to be explored whether the number of volunteers rose or not, whether those who lost their job or can not find one volunteers more or not. All these aspects will help to answer the main question: whether and how the motives of event volunteers changed at financial downturn.

2.2 Events

The events sector of the tourism industry is a dynamic, growing and global sector. In the past couple of decades, event tourism has been one of the fastest growing sections of the world leisure industry (Getz, 1991; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001) and has received increasing attention by academic researchers. Over the past decade, events have grown in terms of number, diversity and popularity (Arcodia and Reid, 2004).
The difficulty to define events is evident in literature. There is a limited uniformity of terms and definitions of event. One of the reasons for it is that event industry is now so vast and there are so many different types of events that it is impossible to provide one definition that would include all aspects of event. However, many authors have discussed the definition of events (Shone and Parry, 2004; Van der Wagen, 2004; Allen et al., 2005; Goldblatt, 2005; Bowdin et al., 2006; Getz; 2006).
For example, according to Getz (1997, p. 4-11), events ‘are temporary occurrences, either planned or unplanned, with a finite length of time’ (quoted in Tassiopoulos, 2005, p. 11). For Goldblatt (1997, p.2) a special event is a ‘unique moment in time celebrated with ceremony and vital to satisfy specific needs’. Allen, McDonnell, and Harris (2002, p. 11) describe special events as, ‘constituting specific rituals, presentations, performances or celebrations that are occasionally planned and created to mark a special occasion or to achieve particular social, cultural or corporate goals and objectives’.
Many authors have focused their research on defining different characteristics of events; however, there is still little evidence of clear differentiation of different types of events. Bowdin et al (2006, p. 30) conclude that ‘events vary in their size and impact, with terms such as special events, mega-events, hallmark events and major events used to describe and categorize them’.
Tassiopoulos (2005, p. 10) pointed out that ‘events consist of two types: planned and unplanned, ‘planned events’ consist of two categories: routine, ordinary or common and special events. ‘Special events’ includes the following categories: minor special events and major special events. ‘Major special events’ contain two categories: hallmark events and mega-events’.
Events are an important motivator of tourism, and are used in the development and marketing plans of most destinations. Events are playing a significant role in tourism and culture; governments now support and promote events as part of their strategies for economic development and destination marketing. Events tourism is discussed in the following section.

2.2.1 Events tourism

The term ‘events tourism’ was not widely used, if at all, prior to 1987 when The New Zealand Tourist and Publicity Department (1987) reported: ‘Event tourism is an important and rapidly growing segment of international tourism’ (Getz, 2007).
Events are becoming established as an integral and major part of tourism development and marketing strategies. They are important because they provide economic support and authenticity. Many cities rely on the revenue from these events and events tourism can enhance a destination’s image development.
The goals of event tourism are ‘to create a favorable image for a destination, to expand the traditional tourist season, to spread tourist demand more evenly through an area, and to attract foreign and domestic visitors’ (Tassiopoulos, 2005, p. 4).
Local and regional events can have an advantage of keeping the domestic tourism market active. ‘Smaller local events can make event tourists believe that they are participating in an authentically indigenous activity’ (Getz, 1991, p. 127, quoted in Tassiopoulos, 2005, p. 5)

2.2.2 Events and Tourism in the context of the financial downturn

In contrast to previous economic downturns, the current crisis has a global impact that has hit tourism services with particular force (UNWTO, 2009). The global recession has seriously affected the UK leisure and tourism industry and the market is currently facing its most difficult trading climate for many years (Key Note, 2009).
The tourism industry has experienced many financial crises over the years, yet there remain large knowledge gaps about the financial behavior and strategies of firms under financial stress. In addition, little is known about the impacts of financial and economic crises on event sponsorship, business meetings, and corporate travel (Sheldon and Dwyer, 2010)
As being part of Tourism industry Events sector was affected by economic downturn as well. For example, the British Meetings & Events Industry Survey reported a sharp drop in spending on corporate events: 33% of respondents saw a reduction in the number of events; 22% reported a reduction in the duration of their events; and 26% reported a reduction in the number of participants (Rob Davidson, 2009). The economic recession of 2008 and 2009 has affected the exhibitions and conferences industry itself (Key Note, 2009).
‘A restructuring of the industry is a necessary outcome from this crisis, and an opportunity for strategic reflection and re-visioning of the tourism product by both private and public sectors are evident’ (Sheldon and Dwyer, 2010).
Due to heavy costs involved in holding events and due to current financial situation, it is important for organizers to find ways to reduce costs. Therefore, it is beneficiary to devote volunteers.
Getz (2007, p. 286) indicated that ‘events have unique human resource needs and challenges, especially because of their usual reliance on volunteer’. Monga (2006) highlighted that the decision to get volunteer labor is typically based on the need to create an event or activity greater than its immediate financial resources would allow. That is why it is vital for volunteer managers to create an appropriate method to obtain, maintain, and retain suitable volunteer labor.
Farrell et al. (1998, p. 288) points out that ‘many major sporting events depend on volunteer labor and that the volunteer team is a critical part of the overall success of many major sporting competitions’. Therefore it is necessary that organizers understand volunteer motivation and their satisfaction with the volunteering experience in order to respond effectively to management needs in the areas of recruitment, retention, and daily operations.
Elstad (2003, p. 99) notes that ‘many event organizations spend considerable resources in recruiting and training volunteers’. Because volunteers are not dependent on the event or festival economically, it is much easier for them to quit as a volunteer compared to quitting in their paid jobs. It is, therefore, quite a challenge to ensure that individuals continue as volunteers in the future.

2.2.3 Volunteering and unemployment

In the past years volunteering has increasingly attracted the interest of many researchers. However, there are relatively limited studies on the impact of job loss on volunteering. Straus (2008) highlighted that these studies are ‘cross-sectional’ and they do not systematically analyze gender differences in the role of volunteering for unemployed.
The total number unemployed in the UK is currently 2.49 million (7.9% of the population) following hundreds of thousands of job losses in 2009. According to the latest forecast from the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development unemployment will peak at 2.8 million in 2010 (BBC News, 2009).
‘Employment rates have fallen for the UK and across the country, with Northern Ireland and Wales having the largest falls, the number of jobs in the UK has fallen, unemployment and the claimant count have increased in all regions’ (Jenkins & Leaker, 2009).
Hill (2009) highlighted that increasing unemployment has focused attention on volunteering as a potential route back to work. One survey found that 88 per cent of unemployed respondents believed that their volunteering would help them get a job (Hirst, 2001). Another found that three-quarters of those aged 16-25 thought that volunteering could have a positive effect on career progression (v, 2008).
‘In Great Britain, the recognition of volunteering as a policy-relevant measure for social integration has a long tradition’ (Susanne Strauß, 2008, p.18). A series of programme, such as Opportunities for Volunteering Fund in 1982 or the Community Opportunities programme in 1998 was launched to support the participation of the unemployed in volunteer work and to promote volunteer work as an alternative labour market instrument (Strauß, 2008). ‘The government has recently invested £8 million in a volunteer brokerage scheme for jobseekers over the next two years’ (Hill, 2009, p.2)
Straus (2008, p. 227) found out that ‘volunteers are more likely to find new employment than non-volunteers. Therefore, volunteering has a positive effect on re-employment chances’. ‘Volunteering can be seen as a route to new or re-/employment for many people; volunteering can develop skills for employability and for new career pathways’ (Volunteering England, 2008).
However, the three largest quantitative studies in the UK to date (Gay and Hatch, 1983; Gay 1998; Hirst, 2001) all fail to establish a direct statistical link between volunteering and job outcomes (Hill, 2009). Therefore there is no clear evidence of the link between volunteering and unemployment, and further studies and research are required.
There is significant number of reports from volunteer-involving organizations (VIOs) of major increases in enquiries about volunteering. The average volunteer centre in London has seen a 90 % increase in the number of people inquiring about opportunities for placements in the past year, according to the umbrella body for volunteer centres in the capital. Increased demand for volunteering is largely a result of rising unemployment in the recession (Kaye Wiggins, 2009).
The research shows that over the past six months, 86% of Volunteer Centres have seen an increase in volunteering enquiries, which represents a further increase on data collected in March 2009 (Volunteering England, 2009).11 % of charities have increased their drive for more volunteers, up from 7 % in survey six months previously (Charities and the economic downturn Charity Commission, September 2009)
‘While research has so far failed to produce convincing statistical proof demonstrating that people who volunteer have an advantage over non-volunteers in the job market, there is a growing body of evidence about what people gain from their volunteering’ (Rochester, 2009, p.7). The benefits include gaining practical experience, acquiring skills, improving interpersonal skills, keeping active and involved, excluding gaps in CV.
Traditionally volunteering is seen as an altruistic act, but due to current situation people seeking route back into employment and therefore many see volunteering as way to gain new skills and get ‘head-start’ in a job market, because volunteering can improve their employability and provide a better chance of entering the labour market.
Volunteers could have different motives for offering their labor, knowledge, skills and time. It is important to understand whether unemployment and economic downturn has an impact on motives of volunteers in order to adopt a more systematic and professional method for their management. The next section explores core motivation’s theories in human resources followed by motives for volunteering.

2.3 Motivation

Much of human resource management is concerned with motivation. The word motivation is generally used to reflect the effort that an individual puts into an activity. There is an extensive amount of studies on motivation, particularly in the workplace (Huczynski and Buchanan 2007; Mullins, 2006; Fulop and Linstead 1999; Hollyforde and Whiddett, 2002).
The various needs and expectations at work can be categorized in a number of ways - for example intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivators include pay, job security, and title; working conditions; fringe benefits, and relationships. These factors are related to meeting lower-level needs. Intrinsic motivators include achievement, recognition, challenge, and advancement. These factors related to meeting higher-level needs, and are better at motivating than extrinsic factors (Lussier and Achua, 2009).
Many theories attempt to explain the nature of motivation. However, all these theories are contradictive and not conclusive. The usual approach to the study of motivation is through an understanding of internal cognitive processes – what people feel and how they think. These different cognitive theories of motivation are usually divided into two approaches: content theories and process theories. Content theories are concerned with identifying people’s needs and their relative strengths, and the goals they pursue in order to satisfy there needs. Process theories are concerned with how behaviour is initiated, directed and sustained (Mullins, 2006).
Major content theories of motivation include: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model, Alderfer’s modified need hierarchy model, Herzberg’s two-factor theory and McClelland’s achievement motivation theory.
Maslow’s classification of needs include five categories – Physiological, Safety, Social, Esteem and Self-actualization (Adair, 2007). It also includes the need to know and understand aesthetic needs and the need for transcendence (Mullins, 2006). Alderfer developed a three-factor theory of needs called ‘ERG’: Existence, Relatedness and Growth. ERG theory could be compared with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: existence is similar to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs, relatedness is similar to Maslow’s social needs and growth is similar to Maslow’ esteem and self-actualization needs.
Herzberg believed that motivation depends heavily on whether a job is intrinsically challenging and provides opportunities for recognition and reinforcement (Boddy, 2008). Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation and job satisfaction suggests that one set of factors, which are ‘hygiene’ or ‘maintenance’ (extrinsic) factors, cause dissatisfaction. The other set of factors are those which serve to motivate the individual to superior effort. These factors are the ‘motivators’ or growth factors (Mullins, 2006).
David McClelland developed a theory on four types of motivating needs: need for power, need for affiliation, need for achievement and for avoidance (Mullins, 2006). McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test to assess how significant these categories were to people (Boddy, 2008).
Major approaches of the process theories include expectancy-based models of Vroom, and Porter and Lawler, equity theory of Adams, goal theory of Locke, and attribution theory of Heider and Kelley. The basis of expectancy theory is that people are influenced by the expected results of their actions. A strong adherent of expectancy theory is Victor Vroom. His theory is based on four premises: people have preferences for various outcomes or incentives that are available to them; people hold expectations about the likelihood that an action or effort on their part will lead to the intended outcome or objective; people understand that certain behaviors will be followed by desirable outcomes or incentives reward; the action a person chooses to take is determined by he expectancies and preferences that the person has at the time (Kakabadse et al., 2005).
Porter and Lawler developed a more complete version of motivation depending upon expectancy theory. Equity theory of Adams suggests the idea that fairness in comparison with others influences motivation. Goal theory is based on the work of Locke. Locke’s theory (1991) suggests that staff and volunteers are motivated when they have clear and challenging goals to achieve, are involved in setting the goals themselves, and are provided with feedback on progress en route to agreed-upon goals. By contrast, few challenges, little involvement, and little feedback may lead to passivity, dependence, and a sense of “psychological failure”. Attribution theory of Heider suggests that behaviour is determined by a combination of perceived internal forces and external forces.
These theories have different approaches and they do not all reach the same conclusions. The question is how well all these theories could be applied to individual variations like gender, culture and age categories, as well as organizational differences. Another question is about their relevance today, as major theories are dated back many years.
They could be applied to the management of volunteer resources as well. However, volunteers require a rather different treatment as there is no salary motive. Barker (1993, quoted in Helmut K. Anheier) identifies three basic motivational factors why people volunteer: altruistic, instrumental, and obligatory. People volunteer both to help an organization and to gain experience. Matching volunteer interests and talents to organizational needs is an important management task.
Managing and training volunteers is a way of attracting and retaining them. At the same time, and in contrast to paid staff, volunteer motivation is primarily non-monetary and cannot be managed along incentives lines but more on the grounds of commitment to the cause and long-term career benefits. This means that strategies for managing employees and volunteers are different. That is why it is important to avoid tensions between personnel management based on commitment and those based on monetary incentives (Helmut K. Anheier, p 259).
Therefore there are differences in focus in the employee and volunteer work motivation literatures. Questions about employee motivation have centered on understanding direction and persistence, primarily interest in attendance and turnover. Unlike employees, volunteers’ motives for joining cannot easily be reduced to a simple and reassuring assumption (Pearce, 1993, p. 61).



2.4 The Motives for Volunteering

It is very difficult to define what is meant by a volunteer as there is no standard practice in volunteering (Gaskin, K., 1999). Volunteers operate in thousands of different organizations taking on extremely varied roles. ‘Also volunteers cannot be considered to be one large, homogenous group (Wymer, W. W., 1998) as they are of all ages and diverse backgrounds with a range of experiences and skills’ (Bussell and Forbes, 2001, p. 245).
There is also a question whether volunteers, as time donors, should be treated differently from those who donate other items, such as money or gifts. Many people state that they would like to volunteer, but are unable to do so because of work commitments (Nichols and King, 1998). ‘In order to increase the pool of volunteers some firms are allowing employees to have time off work (either paid or unpaid) to undertake voluntary work in the community’ (Bussell and Forbes, 2001, p. 246).
To be considered as a volunteer, altruism must be the central motive where the reward is intrinsic to the act of volunteering. The volunteer’s motive is a selfless one. ‘Helping others has been found to be an important factor among volunteers of all ages: student volunteers (Thippayanuruksakul, 1989) and those over the age of 60’ (Okun, 1994, quoted in Bussell and Forbes, 2001, p. 249). Murk and Stephen stated that volunteer does not think in terms of sacrifice but instead sees rewards that go beyond the financial. However volunteers sacrifice much, in terms of time spent and energies given to a project. Because of this, ‘successful volunteer experience hinges on the mutual satisfaction of meeting volunteer and organizational needs’ (Murk and Stephen, 1991, p.73).
The reasons why people choose to volunteer, is essential in order to design successful recruitment campaign. Motivation is the defining difference between managing paid staff and volunteers. Volunteer motivation is the most researched aspect of volunteerism and most studies conclude that motivation is complex and personal (Kirsten Holmes, Karen Smith). ‘Volunteering means any activity in which time is given freely to benefit another person, group, or organization’ (Wilson, 2000, p. 215, quoted in Baum et al., p.139)
The literature on volunteer’s motivation tends to be ‘unsettled’. The MTV models proposed so far vary from a unidimensional model (Cnaan & Goldberg-Glen, 1991) to a six-factor model (e.g., Clary et al., 1998). However, two-dimensional and three-dimensional are more often used in volunteering literature. The two-dimensional models included egoistic and altruistic motivations (Horton-Smith, 1981; Latting, 1990), and the three-dimensional models included altruistic, material, and social motivations (Morrow-Howell & Mui, 1989; Prestby, Wandersman, Florin, Rich, and Chavis, 1990). ‘Despite the fact that the three-dimensional models are based on the same dimensions, the descriptions of these dimensions vary’ (Monga, 2006, p. 50)
In the 1970’s the research on volunteerism and motivation increased. For example, in 1978, Gidron adapted Herzberg’s (1966) Motivational-Hygiene Theory and concluded that the rewards for volunteering were personal, social and indirectly economic. He also found out that motivations and rewards could differ with age.
An increasing number of studies in the 1980’s focused on the two or three factor model. This provided a better understanding of complex motives of those who volunteer. In 1981, Horton-Smith developed a two-factor model to understand volunteer motivation. This model distinguished between altruistic and egoistic motives. In 1987, Fitch in a study developed a 20-item scale that included a three factor model. It comprised three motivational factors: altruistic, egoistic and social obligation.
However, this research had limitations. Many of these studies were not based on empirical evidence and they included small sample sizes and were limited to one group of volunteers in one particular organization.
In 1991, Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen (1991) confirmed the limitations of many previous studies and found that much of the previous research wasn’t systematic and had rather descriptive nature. They reviewed 27 studies on volunteer motivation, and collected additional quantitative data from a sample of 258 volunteers and 104 non-volunteers. They identified 28 motives to volunteer and developed the Motivation to Volunteer (MTV) scale. Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen (1991) concluded that volunteers have both altruistic and egoistic motivations to volunteer and that volunteer do not act due to one motive or a single category of motives. It gave an alternative perspective on motivation.
More recent studies, however, have provided support for multidimensional models of measuring motives (e.g., Clary et al., 1998; Farrell et al, 1998; Johnston, Twynam, & Farrell, 1999–2000).
Clary et al. (1998) have adopted the strategy of functional analysis, an approach that underlie and generate psychological phenomena — that is, the personal and social functions being served by an individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions (Snyder, 1993). Theorists Smith, Bruner, and White (1956) and Katz (1960) proposed that the same attitudes could serve different functions for different people and that attempts to change attitudes would succeed to the extent that they addressed the functions served by those attitudes (Clary et al.).
They conducted exploratory and confirmatory analyses on different samples to identify the motivational functions served by volunteerism. As a result they identified six primary functions, and developed the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI). These functions were Values, Understanding, Social, Career, Protective, and Enhancement. The Values function relates opportunities that volunteerism provides for individuals to express values related to altruistic and humanitarian concerns for others. Understanding function reflects the opportunity for volunteerism to permit new learning experiences and the chance to exercise knowledge, skills, and abilities that might otherwise go unpracticed. Social function involves motivations concerning relationships with others. Volunteering may offer opportunities to be with one's friends or to engage in an activity viewed favorably by important others. Career function is concerned with career-related benefits that may be obtained from participation in volunteer work (Clary et al.). The Protective function relates to reducing guilt over being more fortunate than others and addressing one’s own personal problems, and finally, the Enhancement function is about the ego’s growth and development (Bang et al.).
Studies done by other researchers about volunteer motivation have either incorporated or adapted at least one of these three models.

2.5 The Motivations of Event Volunteers

The majority of events are dependent on volunteer labor, for example, mega-events such as the Olympics where thousands of volunteers participate (Elstad, 1997a; Hiller, 1990). Furthermore, a survey in the UK estimated that 76% of the festivals used volunteers (Rolfe, 1992; Ryan & Bates, 1995). ‘Without the commitment from the volunteers, many events could not have been arranged’ (Elstad, 2003, p.99).
Key question for volunteer management is ‘What motivates event volunteers and how can their commitment and productivity be maximized and sustained’ (Getz, 2007, p. 289). Understanding motivation, the reasons why people choose to volunteer, is essential in order to design successful recruitment campaigns, effectively allocate roles, devise an appropriate reward strategy to ensure volunteer satisfaction and also retain the services of a volunteer over time (Managing Volunteers in Tourism: Attractions, Destinations and Events, Kirsten Holmes, Karen Smith).
Limited knowledge of current trends in volunteerism or ignorance of the real needs and motives of volunteers could be catastrophic for the expansion of volunteer human resources and the execution of a special event (D. Strigas and Newton Jackson, 2003). Therefore it is important to gain a better understanding of the motives of short-term volunteers in order to design the marketing tools for future recruitment.
Event volunteers have complex motivations, the same way as volunteers in other settings. However, the episodic nature of event volunteering makes their motivations different from other forms of volunteering. Motives to volunteer differ depending on the nature of the volunteer activity, as there are differences between the volunteer motives in the areas of human services and special events (Clary et. al., 1998; Fairley, Kellett, & Green, 2007: Farrell, Johnston, & Twynam, 1998, quoted in Bang et al., 2009). The literature on volunteer motivations suggests that there is a complex system of reasons and motives which differ depending on the characteristics of events (Bang and Ross, 2009).
It is equally important to understand event volunteer satisfaction, which is influenced by expectations prior to the event as well as actual experiences during the event which includes the administration and management attributes that influence how effective the event itself is organized (Ralston et al., 2004). People volunteer for different reasons, but they will only continue to volunteer if they enjoy what they are getting from the experience (Ralston et al., 2005). Elstad (1996, cited in Deery, Jago, & Shaw, 1997, p. 20, quoted in Monga, 2006, p.51), highlighted that the satisfying factors for the majority of volunteers at the XI Olympic Winter Games were “personal networking, [the] celebratory atmosphere and having fun.” Monga (2006) noted that a satisfying volunteering experience may have strong implications on the decision to continue volunteering. Motivation to volunteer is a key to understanding volunteer satisfaction.
Volunteers may be motivated by a variety of reasons, intrinsic and extrinsic (Duchesne, 1989; Cnaan & Goldberg, 1991; Perkinson, 1992; Parker, 1992, Schondel, Shield, & Orel, 1992). Caldwell and Andereck (1994) described three categories of motivations or incentives for volunteering: purposive, solidary, and material. Purposive incentives reflect doing something useful and contributing to society. Solidary incentives are based on social interaction, group identification, and networking. Material incetives include tangible rewards. They found that the strongest motives were purposive incentives, followed by solidary, and then material (Farrell et al., 1998).
‘Whatever the motivations may be for investing volunteer time, it is important that they be identified and where feasible, incorporated into the event’s management objectives’ (Williams et al., 1995, p. 85).
There are an extensive number of studies on volunteer’s motivation. However the majority of studies do not reflect the diversity of volunteering activities and most of it explores volunteering in human services. Limited number of studies explored event volunteering, and the majority of these studies are focused on sport event volunteering, which can not be applied to other events requiring the development of a more nuanced model. The diversity of motivations reflects the diversity of event type and scale.
There are a range of approaches to measuring volunteer motivation and a number pf motivation scales have been developed. These approaches highlighted the multifaceted and complex nature of volunteer’s motivation.
Past research on volunteer motivation has identified three main models: two or three factor model, unidimensional model, and multidimensional model. These studies were shown to be valid and reliable, and were found appropriate for assessing volunteer motives in human services. However, volunteer’s motives at events are different from those in general human services and therefore these studies are unlikely to explain complex motivations in the context of events.
A growing body of research exists on volunteer motivation, satisfaction, and commitment. Those studies include works done by: Green and Chalip (1998, 2004), Elstad (1997, 2003), Saleh and Wood (1998), Coyne and Coyne (2001), Strigas and Newton Jackson (2003).The majority of research has been made on motivation of sport events volunteers (Farrell et al., 1998, Johnston et al, 2000, Bang and Chelladurai, 2003, Ralston et al., 2004, Giannoulakis et al., 2008), mainly on Olympics (Reeser et al., 2005, Tsigilis, 2006, Bang et al., 2009), but those findings are not necessarily applicable to other types of event.
In one of the key studies for understanding event volunteer motivation, Farrell et al. (1998) adapted Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen’s (1991) MTV and developed a new scale. Nine items from the Cnaan and Goldberg-Glen scale which were specific to volunteering in human service agencies were deleted and nine items specific to special events were added. In order to reflect the special event context the remaining 19 items were adapted. The scale was called the Special Event Volunteer Motivation Scale (SEVMS). The scale included 28 items which represented four motivational factors: Purposive, Solidary, External Traditions, and Commitments.
The Purposive factor indicates a desire to do something useful and contribute to the community and the event. The second factor, termed solidary, relates to social interaction, group identification, and networking. The external traditions factor reflects motivations related to family traditions and the use of free time. The fourth factor, called commitments, indicates incentives that link external expectations and personal skills with commitment to volunteer. Farrell et al. (1998) found out that special event volunteer’s motives may differ from the motivations for other volunteer activities because of the nature of special events.
Farrell et al.’s multidimensional model of SEVMS was supported by several studies (e.g., Grammatikopoulos, Koustelios, & Tsigilis, 2006; Johnston et al., 1999–2000; Twynam et al., 2002–2003). For example, Twynam et al. (2002–2003), in their study of volunteers at the 1998 Star Choice World Junior Curling Tournament, confirmed the factorial structure of the SEVMS (quoted in Bang et al., 2009).
In a study of a Whistler’s Men’s World Cup of skiing, Williams et al. (1995) indicated that the most important motivations for resident volunteers were to support the national team, improve community spirit, and strengthen the community image. However, Williams et al.’s (1995) study did not have any attempt to analyze the validity of the SEVMS.
Bang and Chelladurai (2003) developed the Volunteer Motivations Scale for International Sporting Events (VMS-ISE) in the context of the 2002 FIFA World Cup. VMS-ISE included 26 items and represented six motivational factors: Expression of Values, Patriotism, Interpersonal Contacts, Personal Growth, Career Orientation, and Extrinsic Rewards. The VMS-ISE was shown to be valid and reliable; however, Bang and Chelladurai (2003) suggested that the scale should be further developed with the inclusion of one more factor: love of sport.
Bang et al. (2009) revised Volunteer Motivations Scale for International Sporting Events (VMS-ISE) for International Sporting Events at Athens 2004 Olympic Games. Also the purpose of this study was to identify subgroup differences in motives for volunteering. The six factors identified by Bang and Chelladurai’s (2003) study were additionally found valid and reliable, with the addition of the Love of Sport factor. This study provided a better understanding of diverse subgroup differences in volunteer’s motivation. However, this study used a convenient sample of volunteer which could lead to a generalization of results. Moreover, the study included volunteers only from Greece, which exclude a complete understanding of volunteer’s behaviour.
Monga (2006) developed a five-dimensional framework, based on unique characteristics of special events and available literature on special event volunteering. Two additional explanatory dimensions—affiliatory and egoistic motivations—were added to the prevailing three-dimensional model constituting altruistic/normative/purposive, material/utilitarian, and solidary/affective/social motivations. However, after conducting a factor analysis, Monga (2006) revealed six factors: affiliatory, feeling of fulfillment, solidary motivations, opportunity for career development and personal rewards. This work provided information that helped to integrate and clarify previous research. However, there is a lack of wide explanation of demographic characteristics.
The Monga’s study indicated that the strongest reason for people to volunteer in an event was affiliatory reasons. Williams et al (1995) described affiliatory dimension of motivation as ‘trigger factor’. In a study of Rose festival, Ryan and Bates (1995) found that the most important reasons for participation included the pleasure derived from gardening, sharing the pleasure of gardening, and enjoyment derived from meeting people and the opportunity to meet other gardening enthusiasts (quoted in Monga, 2006).
All these studies provided a better understanding on the nature of volunteer motives at events. They could be useful for event managers to understand the psychological characteristics of their volunteers. The findings on volunteer’s motives could also be important when event managers have to make decision about recruiting, training and development. However, these studies have several limitations.
First of all, the main difficulty in attempt to understand motivation to volunteer is that many volunteers are not consciously aware of why they are volunteering (Pearce, 1993). Strigas and Jackson (2003, p. 114) indicated that ‘motivation in general is a concept that is constructed subconsciously, and is by nature very difficult to assess’. In addition, there are no clear differences between dimensions, which mean that there is an overlap between them. The fact that some samples being convenient and from a single event limits the generalizations.
Moreover, it is difficult to differentiate the nature of motivations, as it can include a combination of altruistic and egoistic factors. Most of the studies focus their research on one geographical area or country, which suggests that it is necessary to have broader application and more research needs to be done in a range of different international locations. The demographic profile of participants also provided limitations. Limited amount of studies demonstrated subgroup differences in motives of volunteering for events. And finally, the motivation for volunteering can change over time, which requires further research and studies.

2.6 Sociodemographic characteristics

Many studies attempted to examine subgroup differences, however there are still limitations in exploring of how subgroups of event volunteers differ in motivational factors. Several studies suggested that women volunteer more than men do (Clary and Snyder, 1991; Duchense, 1989; quoted in Saleh and Wood, 1998). Most studies find a ‘positive correlation between volunteerism and the volunteer’s socioeconomic status, educational level, and income’ (Clary and Snyder, 1991; Duchense, 1989; Pearce, 1993; quoted in Saleh and Wood, 1998, p. 60).
Bang and Chelladurai (2003) found significant effects of gender and marital status on several volunteer motivational dimensions. For example, female volunteers expressed greater desire for the Career Orientation factor than male volunteers (Bang & Chelladurai, 2003, quoted in Bang et al. 2009). ‘Single volunteers were likely to be more motivated by Interpersonal Contacts, Career Orientation, and Extrinsic Rewards factors than married volunteers’ (Bang & Chelladurai, 2003, quoted in Bang et al., 2009, p. 123).
Bang et al. (2009) highlighted that the social role theory of gender and helping (Eagly & Crowley, 1986) indicates ‘the male gender role is more likely to promote the norm of heroic and chivalrous helping behavior whereas the traditional female gender role is more related to the norm of nurturant and caring helping behavior’ (Eagly & Crowley, 1986, quoted in Bang et al., 2009, p. 123). It means that female volunteers would possess higher altruistic motivation and male volunteers would be influenced by self-interested motives.
Bang and Chelladurai (2003) also pointed out that single volunteers would be interested in getting interpersonal contacts and married volunteers would tend to spend more time with their family. Single volunteers would be more interested in developing their career, as well as getting external rewards, as they are mostly younger then married volunteers and their career is not yet well established.
In order to effectively recruit, manage, and retain volunteers different management strategies should be applied for the different subgroups, therefore understanding of subgroup differences in motivational factors is very important (Bang et al., 2009).




2.7 Career Orientation factor

The present study is focused on the impact of economic downturn on motives of event volunteers; in order to understand whether now volunteering is seen as a chance to get work experience and networking.
In national surveys of volunteering, volunteers rank the development of new skills as a key motivation (Low et al, 2007). Important employability benefits include demonstrating to employers one’s willingness and ability to work (Rochester, 2009; Hirst, 2001), hearing about employment opportunities, (Gay, 1998) and increased access to training (Rochester, 2009; Hirst, 2001).
The lack of time is provided as the primary reason for not volunteering (Low et al, 2007), increased unemployment could mean that people will be looking for new ways to get back into the labour market, of which volunteering may be one approach (Ockenden and Hill, 2009). Hirst (2001) highlighted that forty-one per cent of respondents to one study reported that their volunteering had helped them get their current job.
Many studies on event volunteer motivation included employment related motives concerned with desire to obtain personal advantage, such as enhance career and personal opportunities in paid employment. For example, Clary et al. (1998, p. 1518) included a function which is concerned with career-related benefits that may be obtained from participation in volunteer work. ‘Related to the utilitarian function described by Katz (1960), this career function is exemplified by the Junior League volunteers studied by Jenner (1982), 15% of whom perceived volunteering to be a means of preparing for a new career or of maintaining career-relevant skills’.
The Career Orientation factor in the study of Bang and Chelladurai (2003) was based on career development such as gaining experience and career contacts. Monga (2006) introduced Instrumentalist Motivations and later named it Opportunity for Career Development, Saleh and Wood (1998) named it Knowledge, and Strigas and Newton Jackson (2003) included Material Factor.
Rifkin (1995) pointed out that volunteering provides employment to the unemployed. Volunteering is sometimes seen to enable the volunteer to develop skills which may be useful in a future career or help to obtain employment, gain academic credits or even aid career advancement. Many of the initiatives in the UK encouraging the young and the unemployed to volunteer point out that by volunteering one can gain confidence, prepare for the workplace and gain marketable skills (Bussell and Forbes, 2001).
However, the studies on event volunteer’s motivations haven’t found employment related motives to be highly ranked. Moreover, in most of the studies these factors measured the lowest in the scales. Therefore, further research into event volunteerism using more developed instrument with inclusion of employment related factors is needed. The purpose of the present study is to find out how volunteer’s motives have changed over time, and whether the current financial situation has an impact on volunteer’s motivations.

2.8 Conclusion

Motivation is a key component of Human Resource Management process. There have been an extensive number of researches on what motivates people, particularly in workplace. Volunteer motivation has received widespread empirical and theoretical attention as well. Previous studies have explored volunteer motivations from the area of human services in general (Cnaan & Goldberg-Glen, 1991; Clary et al., 1998) and within events (Farrell et al., 1998; Williams et al., 1995). Despite many studies of volunteer’s motivation, there have been few studies of potential effects of economic downturns on volunteer’s motivation. The examination of demographic characteristics of event volunteers has been limited as well. By identifying volunteer’s motives event managers would be able to recruit, retain and train volunteers, as well as to develop new strategies, which is important especially in the context of economic downturn. Given the importance of identifying motivational factors and demographic differences, the purpose of the current study is three-fold: 1) to extend the research concerning event volunteers, 2) to examine the impact of current financial downturn on event volunteer’s motives and 3) to examine demographic differences in motivation of event volunteers.
The next section explains the methodology used. It provides details of the research strategy, data collection and its framework for data analysis, research ethics and limitations.

Chapter Three
Research Methodology


3.1 Methodology

Positivism, one of the epistemological positions, is chosen as an approach for this research. The Positivist approach is concerned with existing theory that is used in order to generate a research strategy to develop hypotheses. These hypotheses is tested and confirmed, leading to the further development of theory. The Positivist approach is concerned with facts rather than impressions. Therefore Positivism involves structured methodology and the emphasis is on quantifiable observations that lend themselves to statistical analysis (Saunders et al., 2007).
For the present research it is important to establish the reasons for volunteering, and the relationship between motives and sociodemographic characteristics. Consequently, it is necessary to develop a hypothesis, and to test this hypothesis, it is vital to use the collection of quantitative data. All these characteristics are important part of Deduction approach. One of the elements of Deduction approach is objectivity and independency of what is being observed. Moreover, concepts need to be operationalised in a way that enables facts to be measured quantitatively. The final characteristic is generalization, which means that a sufficient numerical size of selected samples is to be collected.
Consequently quantitative data collection is chosen as a technique for this study. The main difference between qualitative and quantitative methods is that quantitative techniques in contrast to qualitative involve numbers (quantities) and generally require a statistical analysis. Usually qualitative methods involve detailed information about relatively few cases, and quantitative methods involve relatively small amounts of data on relatively large numbers of cases (Veal, 2006).
Quantitative methods have dominated tourism research for many years, and they are prominent in event industry research as well. Surveys, in particular, are used frequently in both academic and industry research. Event industry is a mass phenomenon and requires a major involvement of work force and in particular volunteers. Questionnaire surveys are ideal to collect and provide a great deal of information. The collected and analyzed information provided by questionnaire surveys is clear and could be re-analyzed to develop and extend future research. Quantitative method gives the opportunity to repeat surveys over time and compare them in order to study changes. It also gives a complete picture of samples (Veal, 2006; Saunders et al., 2007).
Questionnaire-based surveys could have interviewer-completion and respondent-completion formats. When the questionnaire is interviewer-completed the interviewer records the respondent’s answers on the questionnaire, whereas in respondent-completed respondents fill out the questionnaire themselves. Respondent-completion questionnaires are cheaper and quicker than interviewer-completion, and relatively anonymous. Questionnaire surveys could be: household survey, street survey, telephone survey, mail survey, e-surveys, user/on-site/visitor survey and captive group survey (Veal, 2006). E-surveys could be administered through e-mail and they could be fully electronic.
Self-administered internet-mediated questionnaires were chosen for this research. They were administered electronically using the Internet. Respondents to self-administered questionnaires are relatively unlikely to answer to please researcher or because they believe certain responses are more socially desirable (Dillman, 2000, quoted in Saunders et al., 2007). Closed questions, which are answered by ticking boxes, were used in order to maximize the response rate. The respondents completed the questionnaire on-line by following the link which was emailed to them with the covering letter explaining the purpose of the survey. The advantage of e-surveys is that ‘the data are delivered in electronic form and can be instantly analyzed using appropriate software’ (Veal, 2006, p. 244).
The survey instrument includes questions used in earlier research and new questions investigating impact of current economic situation on volunteer motivation as well as demographic information. Therefore the final instrument consisted of three questions related to volunteering experience, 14 items investigating impact of current economic situation on volunteer motivation, 35 motivational statements, and seven demographic related items.

3.2 Sampling

The study includes a sample of volunteers from two festivals, Love London and Toast Festival that took place in London. This city was selected for accessibility reason. As the majority of studies on volunteer motivation have examined sport events, there was a limited research on other type of events. Consequently it was decided to choose cultural events for this study. Individuals very often intend to volunteer at a sporting event because they have positive emotions towards a specific event, which could be seen as a primary strong reason to volunteer, which almost exclude the possibility to find out the potential impact of the financial downturn on volunteer’s motives.
The study includes a convenience sample of approximately 130 individuals who offered their services in two different events. The cooperation with event managers was necessary in order to provide email database of volunteers. The covering letter with the link of the questionnaire was emailed to 130 volunteers. As a nonresponse procedure, a reminder email was sent after the initial email invitation in order to facilitate maximum return. 97 questionnaires were completed out of 130.


3.3 Survey design and the development of Nine-Dimensional Model

The present questionnaire includes five sections. The first section, named ‘volunteering experience’, contains three items, related to previous experience of volunteering and event volunteering. List questions with responses ‘yes/no’ were used in the first section.
The second section, named ‘volunteering and employment’, includes seven items, reflecting the idea of the link between volunteering and employment. List questions with responses ‘yes/no’ were also used in this section. One question with responses such as part-time, full-time, casual, other, was included in order to collect data on respondents’ employment. One quantity question was asked in order to know ‘how long volunteers have been looking for a job before starting volunteering’. ‘The data collected by this question could be entered into the computer without coding; therefore the question can also be termed a self-coded question’ (Saunders et al., 2007, p. 375). Both sections contain filters – answers which determine which ‘subsequent questions must be answered’ (Veal, 2006, p. 267)
The third section named ‘volunteering in hard times’ includes seven items, reflecting the idea of the possible negative and positive impacts of economic downturn on volunteering. A 5-point Likert type rating scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) was used in this section.
The fourth section named ‘reasons to volunteer’ represents different motives to volunteer and understanding of these reasons should help managers to obtain, retain and train volunteers. The nine-dimensional model includes 35 items. A 4-point Likert type rating scale was used (1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree) that gave the possibility to reflect the feelings and opinion of the respondents. . Respondents were asked whether they agree or disagree with the statements by ticking the appropriate box. The motivation related questions started with “I was volunteering because . . .” before the items.
Monga (2006) reviewed the MTV literature and concluded that the majority of literature has emphasized three categories which explain motives for volunteer participation: material/utilitarian, solidary/affective/social and purposive/normative/altruistic. ‘Material/utilitarian’ category is divided into tangible benefits - instrumentalist, and intangible - egoistic.
The model was developed upon previous studies. The present model reflects the most widespread and accepted by the majority of studies items with focus on employment related motives.
As a result the motivation dimension used in the current study includes: Career Orientation (8 items), Purposive Motivations (4 items), Egoistic Motivations (6 items), Interpersonal Contacts (5 items), Affiliatory (4 items), Extrinsic rewards (2 items), Value expressive (2 items), External traditions (3 items), and Leisure (3 items).
Career Orientation dimension includes the motives to enhance career, and to get experience which can be used later in paid employment. The following items measure career orientation motives:
Volunteering can have a positive effect on my career progression
I want to gain new skills for a future paid position
Volunteering experience will look good on my resume
I want to get work-related experience
Volunteering will help me to succeed in my chosen profession
I want to gain experience that would be beneficial in any job
I was recently fired
It is difficult to find a paid job

Purposive factor represents a desire to do something valuable and contribute to the community and the event. It coincides with Clary’s et al. (1998) factor named ‘values’. They highlighted that ‘one function that may be served by involvement in volunteer service centers on the opportunities that volunteerism provides for individuals to express values related to altruistic and humanitarian concerns for others’. The following items measure purposive motivations:
I want to do something worthwhile
I feel it is important to help others
I am compassionate towards people on need
I wanted to put something back in the community

Egoistic factor is ‘derived from the intrinsic and intangible needs of the ego. It results in enhanced self-esteem by making the person feel needed and important’ (Monga, 2006, p.53). The egoistic motives referred to Clary et al. (1998) ‘Enhancement’, Bang and Chelladurai (2003) ‘Personal Growth’, Saleh and Wood (1998) ‘Egoistic’, and Farrell et al. (1998) ‘Solidary factor’. Saleh and Wood (1998, p.67) pointed out that ‘volunteer participation is driven by egoistic reasons with participants seeming to enjoy their volunteering experiences, and find that it helps them to maintain a positive self-image’. The following items on the scale measure egoistic motivations:
Volunteering makes me feel needed
It makes me feel important
It enhances my self-esteem
It makes me feel good about myself
I have free time to spare
I want to discover new interests

Interpersonal contacts factor reflects needs for social interaction, interpersonal relationships and friendship. Saleh and Wood (1998) named it ‘Social/Adaptive’, and indicated that many volunteers consider their participation to be a good means for developing new friends and contacts. Clary’s et al. (1998) ‘Social function’ reflects motivations concerning relationships with others. ‘Volunteering may offer opportunities to be with one's friends or to engage in an activity viewed favorably by important others’ (Clary et al., 1998, p. 1518). The following items on the scale measure interpersonal contacts motivations:
I want to interact with others
I want to meet people
It is an opportunity to make new friends with similar interests
I want to work with different people
The society expects me to volunteer

Affiliatory dimension ‘recognizes that a significant reason for volunteer participation is a volunteer’s sense of affiliation with and attachment to the event or activity’ (Monga, 2006, p. 51). Monga (2006, p. 52) pointed out that ‘it the event itself could be the initial motivator or attractor for event volunteers besides other reasons’. The following items on the scale measure the affiliatory motivations:
I wanted to help this event to reach its goals
I wanted to be a part of the event
I am involved in this activity
I have special interest in this activity

Extrinsic rewards factor reflects the desire to get tangible rewards such as free uniform, food, and admission. Monga (2006) highlighted that extrinsic rewards is seen as a part of instrumentalist motivations for volunteering. It includes ‘the tangible rewards such as souvenirs, free tickets/entry to the event, or appreciation certificates’ (Monga, 2006, p. 52-53). ‘This dimension of motivation is also reflected by Gold (1998) under the heading: “Forget Altruism Give us a T-shirt” (quoted in Monga, 2006, p. 53). The following items on the scale measure extrinsic rewards motives:
I wanted to get tickets/free admission
I wanted to get event uniforms/souvenirs

Value expressive factor reflects ‘concern for others, the success of the event, and society’ (Bang et al., 2009, p. 122). Bang and Chelladurai (2003) and Bang et al. (2009) named it ‘Expression of Values’. Saleh and Wood (1998) named it ‘Value expressive’. The following items on the scale measure value expressive motivations:
I wanted to contribute to the well-being of my community
Volunteering creates a better society

External traditions dimension expresses motivations related to family traditions. Strigas and Jackson (2003) pointed out that ‘External Factor’ is similar to Farrell et al. (1998) called ‘external traditions’. ‘It assesses the extent to which volunteers are engaged to volunteering activities influenced by motives related to factors outside of their immediate control, like family traditions and significant others’(Strigas and Jackson, 2003, p. 119). The following items on the scale measure external traditions motives:
My friends/family were also volunteering
A relative or friends is involved in event
I wanted to continue a family tradition of volunteering

Leisure factor reflects the need for ‘various leisure choices. Strigas and Jackson (2003, p. 119) highlighted that ‘leisure factor and its extraction support Tedrick’s and Henderson’s theory (1989) that volunteering is better conceptualized as a leisure choice’. The following items on the scale measure leisure motives:
I wanted to get away from the responsibilities of everyday life
By volunteering I feel less lonely
Volunteering is a good escape from my own troubles

The last fifth section named ‘demographic characteristics’ includes seven categories. The current study attempts to develop the understanding of how subgroups of event volunteers, such as gender, age, income, household income, marital and employment status, differ in motivational factors. Marital status and gender were placed at the beginning of the questionnaire. Other sensitive questions were placed at the end of the questionnaire.
For the age section four pre-coded groups were used: ≥19, 20-29, 30-39, and ≤40. Five categories were used for marital status: single, married, widowed/divorced/separated. Employment status category includes six items, indicating the possibility of the link between employment and volunteering: full-time, part-time, casual, unemployed, retired, other. Six items were used for income category and three items for household income. Educational category was also included in the survey using four items.

3.4 Analysis

The reliability is examined through calculating Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for each of the dimensions. The final survey was mailed to the volunteers, after a pilot-test was conducted, who had participated in the most recent events selected for the study.
The data is prepared and analyzed using SPSS Data Entry. This will enable the non-open text data set to be automatically coded for data analysis at the point of data entry (Monga, 2006). Factor analysis was conducted in order to assess how well the 6-factor model fits the data as a factorial validity test.
Demographic information, such as gender, age, income, household income, marital and employment status, was collected to examine potential subgroup differences, using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). It allows testing the effects of gender and employment status of the participations on motivational factors. Findings will provide a better understanding of subgroup differences in motivation of volunteering.

3.5 Research Ethics

Ethical behaviour forms an important part of any research. ‘Codes of ethics’ protect the rights of humans involved in research. The general principles of research ethics are: that no harm should befall the research subjects, that subjects should take part freely and that subject should take part on the basis of informed consent (Veal, 2006). Blumberg et al. (2005:92) define ethics as the ‘moral principles, norms or standards of behaviour that guide moral choices about our behaviour and our relationships with others’ (Saunders et al., 2006, p. 178).
A number of key ethical issues relate to the privacy of possible and actual participants, to voluntary nature of participation and the right to withdraw from the process, to consent and possible deception of participants, and to maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by individuals or identifiable participants and their anonymity (Saunders et al., 2006, p. 181).
As the survey was conducted through the Internet a number of rules named ‘netiquette ‘should be mentioned. It could be achieved by: ensuring emails and postings to user groups are relevant and no junk emails are send; not exceeding the limit of 20 user groups when sending invitations to participate; avoiding sending email to multiple mailing lists as this is likely to result in individuals receiving multiple copies of email; and avoiding the use of email attachments as these can contain viruses. (Hewson et al., 2003, quoted in Saunders et al., 2007, p. 390)
The present survey was anonymous in order to protect respondent anonymity and to maintain confidentiality of data provided by participants. The participation in the research survey was voluntary. A brief description of the purpose of the project was included on the questionnaire with phone number for those requiring more information about research. Personal questions, dealing with such things as age or income, were placed to the end of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was advertised by email and respondents were invited to access a website and to complete an online questionnaire. It means that respondents could remain anonymous (Veal, 2006; Saunders et al., 2007).

3.6 Limitations

Deduction approach could be a lower-risk strategy, including risks, such as the non-return of questionnaires. Deductive research can be quicker to complete, however time must be devoted to setting up the study prior to data collection and analysis (Saunders et al., 2007).
The questionnaire was placed on the website, and was advertised via email providing a link to the website. Response rates from such an approach could be very low. There are problems of non-response bias because the respondent has to take extra steps to complete the questionnaire (Coomber, 1997, quoted in Saunders et al., 2007, p. 398). ‘Consequently, it is likely to be very difficult to obtain a representative sample in order to generalize’ (Saunders et al., 2007, p. 398)
The disadvantage of the e-survey is that it is limited to those with access to the Internet. Despite the fact that sending reminders is cheap, there is a problem of low response rates because emails could be seen as ‘junk mail’ (Veal, 2006). Respondent-completion requires greater care in designing, as they must be completed by ‘untrained’ people.
The present study used a convenient sample of volunteers, which means that it may be bias. Therefore it might limit generalizations of the results. ‘Although this technique of sampling is used widely, it is prone to bias and influences that are beyond the control, as the cases appear in the sample only because of the ease of obtaining them’ (Saunders et al., 2007, p. 234).

Chapter Three
Research Methodology

3.1 Methodology

Quantitative data collection is chosen as a technique for this study. Quantitative methods have dominated tourism research for many years, and they are prominent in event industry research as well. Surveys, in particular, are used frequently in both academic and industry research. Event industry is a mass phenomenon and requires a major involvement of work force and in particular volunteers. Questionnaire surveys are ideal to collect and provide a great deal of information. The collected and analyzed information provided by questionnaire surveys is clear and could be re-analyzed to develop and extend future research. Quantitative method gives the opportunity to repeat surveys over time and compare them in order to study changes. It also gives a complete picture of samples.
Self-administered internet-mediated questionnaires were used and administered electronically using the Internet. Respondents to self-administered questionnaires are relatively unlikely to answer to please researcher or because they believe certain responses are more socially desirable (Dillman, 2000, quoted in Saunders et al., 2007). Respondent-completion questionnaires are cheaper and quicker then interviewer-completion, and relatively anonymous. However, they require greater care in designing, as they must be completed by ‘untrained’ people. Closed questions were used in order to maximize the response rate. The respondents completed the questionnaire on-line by following the link which was emailed to them with the covering letter explaining the purpose of the survey. The advantage of e-surveys is that ‘the data are delivered in electronic form and can be instantly analyzed using appropriate software’ (Veal, 2006, p. 244).
The survey instrument includes questions used in earlier research and new questions investigating impact of current economic situation on volunteer motivation as well as demographic information. Therefore the final instrument consisted of three questions related to volunteering experience, 14 questions investigating impact of current economic situation on volunteer motivation, 35 motivational statements, and seven demographic related questions.


3.2 Sampling

The study includes a sample of volunteers from two festivals, Love London and Toast Festival that took place in London. This city was selected for accessibility reason. The study includes a convenience sample of approximately 100 individuals that is selected from volunteers who offered their services in two different events. The cooperation with event managers was necessary in order to provide email database of volunteers. The covering letter with the link of the questionnaire was emailed to 75 volunteers. As a nonresponse procedure, a reminder email was sent after the initial email invitation in order to facilitate maximum return. Fifty questionnaires were completed out of seventy five.

3.3 MTV for Events: Development of Nine-Dimensional Model

Monga (2006) reviewed the MTV literature and concluded that the majority of literature has emphasized three categories which explain motives for volunteer participation. Material/utilitarian: rewards that have monetary value or can be translated into monetary value, such as wages, salaries, property value, information. Solidary/affective/social: derived from social interaction, interpersonal relationships, friendships, group status and group identification, and purposive/normative/altruistic: based on global concerns of a suprapersonal nature. Appeal to values such as community action and support, civic responsibility and environmental concern (Caldwell & Andereck, 1994). ‘Material/utilitarian’ category is divided into tangible benefits - instrumentalist, and intangible - egoistic.
The model was developed upon previous studies. The present model reflects the most widespread and accepted by the majority of studies items with emphasis on employment related motives.
As a result the motivation dimension used in the current study includes: Career Orientation (8 items), Purposive Motivations (4 items), Egoistic Motivations (6 items), Interpersonal Contacts (5 items), Affiliatory (4 items), Extrinsic rewards (2 items), Value expressive (2 items), External traditions (3 items), and Leisure (3 items).
Career Orientation dimension includes the motives to enhance career, and to get experience which can be used later in paid employment. The following items measure career orientation motives:
Volunteering can have a positive effect on my career progression
I want to gain new skills for a future paid position
Volunteering experience will look good on my resume
I want to get work-related experience
Volunteering will help me to succeed in my chosen profession
I want to gain experience that would be beneficial in any job
I was recently fired
It is difficult to find a paid job

Purposive factor represents a desire to do something valuable and contribute to the community and the event. It coincides with Clary’s et al. (1998) factor named ‘values’. They highlighted that ‘one function that may be served by involvement in volunteer service centers on the opportunities that volunteerism provides for individuals to express values related to altruistic and humanitarian concerns for others’. The following items measure purposive motivations:
I want to do something worthwhile
I feel it is important to help others
I am compassionate towards people on need
I wanted to put something back in the community

Egoistic factor is ‘derived from the intrinsic and intangible needs of the ego. It results in enhanced self-esteem by making the person feel needed and important’ (Monga, 2006, p.53). The egoistic motives referred to Clary et al. (1998) ‘Enhancement’, Bang and Chelladurai (2003) ‘Personal Growth’, Saleh and Wood (1998) ‘Egoistic’, and Farrell et al. (1998) ‘Solidary factor’. Saleh and Wood (1998, p.67) pointed out that ‘volunteer participation is driven by egoistic reasons with participants seeming to enjoy their volunteering experiences, and find that it helps them to maintain a positive self-image’. The following items on the scale measure egoistic motivations:
Volunteering makes me feel needed
It makes me feel important
It enhances my self-esteem
It makes me feel good about myself
I have free time to spare
I want to discover new interests

Interpersonal contacts factor reflects needs for social interaction, interpersonal relationships and friendship. Saleh and Wood (1998) named it ‘Social/Adaptive’, and indicated that many volunteers consider their participation to be a good means for developing new friends and contacts. Clary’s et al. (1998) ‘Social function’ reflects motivations concerning relationships with others. ‘Volunteering may offer opportunities to be with one's friends or to engage in an activity viewed favorably by important others’ (Clary et al., 1998, p. 1518). The following items on the scale measure interpersonal contacts motivations:
I want to interact with others
I want to meet people
It is an opportunity to make new friends with similar interests
I want to work with different people
The society expects me to volunteer

Affiliatory dimension ‘recognizes that a significant reason for volunteer participation is a volunteer’s sense of affiliation with and attachment to the event or activity’ (Monga, 2006, p. 51). Monga (2006, p. 52) pointed out that ‘it the event itself could be the initial motivator or attractor for event volunteers besides other reasons’. The following items on the scale measure the affiliatory motivations:
I wanted to help this event to reach its goals
I wanted to be a part of the event
I am involved in this activity
I have special interest in this activity

Extrinsic rewards factor reflects the desire to get tangible rewards such as free uniform, food, and admission. Monga (2006) highlighted that extrinsic rewards is seen as a part of instrumentalist motivations for volunteering. It includes ‘the tangible rewards such as souvenirs, free tickets/entry to the event, or appreciation certificates’ (Monga, 2006, p. 52-53). ‘This dimension of motivation is also reflected by Gold (1998) under the heading: “Forget Altruism Give us a T-shirt” (quoted in Monga, 2006, p. 53). The following items on the scale measure extrinsic rewards motives:
I wanted to get tickets/free admission
I wanted to get event uniforms/souvenirs

Value expressive factor reflects ‘concern for others, the success of the event, and society’ (Bang et al., 2009, p. 122). Bang and Chelladurai (2003) and Bang et al. (2009) named it ‘Expression of Values’. Saleh and Wood (1998) named it ‘Value expressive’. The following items on the scale measure value expressive motivations:
I wanted to contribute to the well-being of my community
Volunteering creates a better society

External traditions dimension expresses motivations related to family traditions. Strigas and Jackson (2003) pointed out that ‘External Factor’ is similar to Farrell et al. (1998) called ‘external traditions’. ‘It assesses the extent to which volunteers are engaged to volunteering activities influenced by motives related to factors outside of their immediate control, like family traditions and significant others’(Strigas and Jackson, 2003, p. 119). The following items on the scale measure external traditions motives:
My friends/family were also volunteering
A relative or friends is involved in event
I wanted to continue a family tradition of volunteering

Leisure factor reflects the need for ‘various leisure choices. Strigas and Jackson (2003, p. 119) highlighted that ‘leisure factor and its extraction support Tedrick’s and Henderson’s theory (1989) that volunteering is better conceptualized as a leisure choice’. The following items on the scale measure leisure motives:
I wanted to get away from the responsibilities of everyday life
By volunteering I feel less lonely
Volunteering is a good escape from my own troubles

This model represents different reasons and understanding of these reasons should help managers to obtain, retain and train volunteers. The final nine-dimensional model included 35 items. A 4-point Likert type scale was used (1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree) that gave the possibility to reflect the feeling of the respondents. The survey’s questions started with “I was volunteering because . . .” before the items.

3.4 Sociodemographic characteristics

The current study attempted to develop the understanding of how subgroups of event volunteers, such as gender, age, income, marital and employment status, differ in motivational factors. Several studies suggested that women volunteer more than men do (Clary and Snyder, 1991; Duchense, 1989; quoted in Saleh and Wood, 1998). Most studies find a ‘positive correlation between volunteerism and the volunteer’s socioeconomic status, educational level, and income’ (Clary and Snyder, 1991; Duchense, 1989; Pearce, 1993; quoted in Saleh and Wood, 1998, p. 60).
Bang and Chelladurai (2003) found significant effects of gender and marital status on several volunteer motivational dimensions. For example, female volunteers expressed greater desire for the Career Orientation factor than male volunteers (Bang & Chelladurai, 2003, quoted in Bang et al. 2009). ‘Single volunteers were likely to be more motivated by Interpersonal Contacts, Career Orientation, and Extrinsic Rewards factors than married volunteers’ (Bang & Chelladurai, 2003, quoted in Bang et al., 2009, p. 123).
Bang et al. (2009) highlighted that the social role theory of gender and helping (Eagly & Crowley, 1986) indicates ‘the male gender role is more likely to promote the norm of heroic and chivalrous helping behavior whereas the traditional female gender role is more related to the norm of nurturant and caring helping behavior’ (Eagly & Crowley, 1986, quoted in Bang et al., 2009, p. 123). It means that female volunteers would possess higher altruistic motivation and male volunteers would be influenced by self-interested motives.
Bang and Chelladurai (2003) also pointed out that single volunteers would be interested in getting interpersonal contacts and married volunteers would tend to spend more time with their family. Single volunteers would be more interested in developing their career, as well as getting external rewards, as they are mostly younger then married volunteers and their career is not yet well established.
In order to effectively recruit, manage, and retain volunteers different management strategies should be applied for the different subgroups, that is why understanding of subgroup differences in motivational factors is very important (Bang et al., 2009).


3.5 Analysis

The reliability is examined through calculating Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for each of the dimensions. The final survey was mailed to the volunteers, after a pilot-test was conducted, who had participated in the most recent events selected for the study.
The data is prepared and analyzed using SPSS Data Entry. This will enable the non-open text data set to be automatically coded for data analysis at the point of data entry (Monga, 2006). Factor analysis was conducted in order to assess how well the 6-factor model fits the data as a factorial validity test.
Demographic information, such as gender, age, income, marital and employment status was collected to examine potential subgroup differences, using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). It allows testing the effects of gender and employment status of the participations on motivational factors. Findings will provide a better understanding of subgroup differences in motivation of volunteering.

3.6 Research Ethics

The present survey was anonymous in order to protect respondent anonymity and to maintain confidentiality of data provided by participants. The participation in the research survey was voluntary. A brief description of the purpose of the project was included on the questionnaire with phone number for those requiring more information about research. Personal questions, dealing with such things as age or income, were placed to the end of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was advertised by email and respondents were invited to access a website and to complete an online questionnaire. It means that respondents could remain anonymous.

Chapter Three
Research Methodology

3.1 Sampling

The study includes a sample of volunteers from two festivals that took place in London. This city is selected for accessibility reason. The study includes a convenience sample of approximately 100 individuals that is selected from volunteers who offered their services in two different events. The cooperation with event managers was necessary in order to provide email database of volunteers.

3.2 Development of Measurement Instrument

Monga (2006) reviewed the MTV literature and concluded that the majority of literature has emphasized three categories which explain motives for volunteer participation. Material/utilitarian: rewards that have monetary value or can be translated into monetary value, such as wages, salaries, property value, information. Solidary/affective/social: derived from social interaction, interpersonal relationships, friendships, group status and group identification, and purposive/normative/altruistic: based on global concerns of a suprapersonal nature. Appeal to values such as community action and support, civic responsibility and environmental concern (Caldwell & Andereck, 1994). ‘Material/utilitarian’ category is divided into tangible benefits - instrumentalist, and intangible - egoistic.
The questionnaire was developed upon previous studies. The survey instrument includes questions used in earlier research and new questions investigating impact of current economic situation on volunteer motivation. The present questionnaire reflects the most widespread and accepted by the majority of studies items with emphasis on employment related motives.
As a result the motivation dimension used in the current study includes: Career Orientation (8 items), Purposive Motivations (6 items), Interpersonal Contacts (5 items), Egoistic Motivations (6 items). Therefore, the final instrument includes 25 items.
Career Orientation dimension include the motive to enhance career, and to get experience which can be used later in paid employment. The following items measure career motivations:
Volunteering can have a positive effect on my career progression
I want to gain new skills for a future paid position
Volunteering experience will look good on my resume
I want to get work-related experience
Volunteering will help me to succeed in my chosen profession
I want to gain experience that would be beneficial in any job
I was recently fired
It is difficult to find a paid job

Purposive factor represents a desire to do something valuable and contribute to the community and the event. It coincides with Clary’s et al. (1998) factor named ‘values’. They highlighted that ‘one function that may be served by involvement in volunteer service centers on the opportunities that volunteerism provides for individuals to express values related to altruistic and humanitarian concerns for others’. The following items measure purposive motivations:
Volunteering creates a better society
I want to do something worthwhile
I feel it is important to help others
I am compassionate towards people on need
I want to help this event to reach its goals
I wanted to put something back in the community

Egoistic factor is ‘derived from the intrinsic and intangible needs of the ego. It results in enhanced self-esteem by making the person feel needed and important’ (Monga, 2006, p.53). The egoistic motives referred to Clary et al. (1998) ‘Enhancement’, Bang and Chelladurai (2003) ‘Personal Growth’, Saleh and Wood (1998) ‘Egoistic’, and Farrell et al. (1998) ‘Solidary factor’. Saleh and Wood (1998, p.67) pointed out that ‘volunteer participation is driven by egoistic reasons with participants seeming to enjoy their volunteering experiences, and find that it helps them to maintain a positive self-image’. The following items on the scale measure egoistic motivations:
Volunteering makes me feel needed
It makes me feel important
It enhances my self-esteem
It makes me feel good about myself
I have free time to spare
I want to discover new interests

Interpersonal contacts factor reflects needs for social interaction, interpersonal relationships and friendship. Saleh and Wood (1998) named it ‘Social/Adaptive’, and indicated that many volunteers consider their participation to be a good means for developing new friends and contacts. Clary’s et al. (1998) ‘Social function’ reflects motivations concerning relationships with others. ‘Volunteering may offer opportunities to be with one's friends or to engage in an activity viewed favorably by important others’ (Clary et al., 1998, p. 1518). The following items on the scale measure interpersonal contacts:
I want to interact with others
I want to meet people
It is an opportunity to make new friends with similar interests
I want to work with different people
The society expects me to volunteer

This model represents different reasons and understanding of these reasons should help managers to obtain, retain and train volunteers.
Quantitative data collection is chosen as a technique for this study. Quantitative methods have dominated tourism research for many years, and they are prominent in event industry research as well. Surveys, in particular, are used frequently in both academic and industry research. They collect a great deal of information.
Self-administered internet-mediated questionnaires will be used and administered electronically using the Internet. The reason of using internet questionnaires, and in particular those administered in conjunction with email, is that they offer greater control because most users read and respond to their own mail at their personal computer (Witmer et al., 1999, quoted in Saunders et al., 2007). Respondents to self-administered questionnaires are relatively unlikely to answer to please researcher or because they believe certain responses are more socially desirable (Dillman, 2000, quoted in Saunders et al., 2007).
In the survey are used closed questions, namely 5-point numeric rating scale that will give the possibility to reflect the feeling of the respondents.

3.3 Analysis

The reliability is examined through calculating Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for each of the dimensions. The final survey was mailed to the volunteers, after a pilot-test was conducted, who had participated in the most recent events selected for the study.
The data is prepared and analyzed using SPSS Data Entry. This will enable the non-open text data set to be automatically coded for data analysis at the point of data entry (Monga, 2006). Factor analysis was conducted in order to assess how well the 6-factor model fits the data as a factorial validity test.
Demographic information, such as gender, age, and employment status, will be collected to examine potential subgroup differences, using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). It will allow testing the effects of gender and employment status of the participations on motivational factors. Findings will provide a better understanding of subgroup differences in motivation of volunteering.

2.6 Conclusion

The present study is focused on impact of economic downturn on motives of event volunteers; in order to understand whether now volunteering is seen as a chance to get work experience and networking.
In national surveys of volunteering, volunteers rank the development of new skills as a key motivation (Low et al, 2007). Important employability benefits include demonstrating to employers one’s willingness and ability to work (Rochester, 2009; Hirst, 2001), hearing about employment opportunities, (Gay, 1998) and increased access to training (Rochester, 2009; Hirst, 2001).
The lack of time is provided as the primary reason for not volunteering (Low et al, 2007), increased unemployment could mean that people will be looking for new ways to get back into the labour market, of which volunteering may be one approach (Ockenden and Hill, 2009). Hirst (2001) highlighted that forty-one per cent of respondents to one study reported that their volunteering had helped them get their current job.
Many studies on event volunteer motivation included employment related motives concerned with desire to obtain personal advantage, such as enhance career and personal opportunities in paid employment. For example, Clary et al. (1998, p. 1518) included a function which is concerned with career-related benefits that may be obtained from participation in volunteer work. ‘Related to the utilitarian function described by Katz (1960), this career function is exemplified by the Junior League volunteers studied by Jenner (1982), 15% of whom perceived volunteering to be a means of preparing for a new career or of maintaining career-relevant skills’.
The Career Orientation factor in the study of Bang and Chelladurai (2003) was based on career development such as gaining experience and career contacts. Monga (2006) introduced Instrumentalist Motivations and later named it Opportunity for Career Development, Saleh and Wood (1998) named it Knowledge, and Strigas and Newton Jackson (2003) included Material Factor.
Rifkin (1995) pointed out that volunteering provides employment to the unemployed. Volunteering is sometimes seen to enable the volunteer to develop skills which may be useful in a future career or help to obtain employment, gain academic credits or even aid career advancement. Many of the initiatives in the UK encouraging the young and the unemployed to volunteer point out that by volunteering one can gain confidence, prepare for the workplace and gain marketable skills (Bussell and Forbes, 2001).
However, the studies on event volunteer’s motivations haven’t found employment related motives to be highly ranked. Moreover, in most of the studies these factors measured the lowest in the scales. Therefore, further research into event volunteerism using more developed instrument with inclusion of employment related factors is needed. The purpose of the present study is to find out how volunteer’s motives have changed over time, and whether the current financial situation has an impact on volunteer’s motivations.

2.2.1 Events

The events sector of the tourism industry is a dynamic, growing and global sector. In the past couple of decades, festival and event tourism has been one of the fastest growing sections of the world leisure industry (Getz, 1991; Nicholson & Pearce, 2001) and has received increasing attention by academic researchers. Over the past decade, events have grown in terms of number, diversity and popularity (Arcodia and Reid, 2004). Allen et al (2005) noted that events are central to our culture.
The difficulty to define events is evident in literature. There is a limited uniformity of terms and definitions of event. One of the reasons for it is that event industry is now so vast and there are so many different types of events that it is impossible to provide one definition that would include all aspects of event. However, many authors have discussed the definition of events (Shone and Parry, 2004; Van der Wagen, 2004; Allen et al., 2005; Goldblatt, 2005; Bowdin et al., 2006; Getz; 2006).
For example, according to Getz (1997, p. 4-11), events ‘are temporary occurrences, either planned or unplanned, with a finite length of time’ (quoted in Tassiopoulos, 2005, p. 11). For Goldblatt (1997, p.2) a special event is a ‘unique moment in time celebrated with ceremony and vital to satisfy specific needs’. Allen, McDonnell, and Harris (2002, p. 11) describe special events as, ‘constituting specific rituals, presentations, performances or celebrations that are occasionally planned and created to mark a special occasion or to achieve particular social, cultural or corporate goals and objectives’.
Many authors have focused their research on defining different characteristics of events; however, there is still little evidence of clear differentiation of different types of events. Bowdin et al (2006, p. 30) conclude that ‘events vary in their size and impact, with terms such as special events, mega-events, hallmark events and major events used to describe and categorize them’.
Shone and Parry (2004) indicate the differences in event complexity and uncertainty to produce a typology of all types of events.
Tassiopoulos (2005, p. 10) pointed out that ‘events consist of two types: planned and unplanned, ‘planned events’ consist of two categories: routine, ordinary or common and special events. ‘Special events’ includes the following categories: minor special events and major special events. ‘Major special events’ contain two categories: hallmark events and mega-events’.
Events are an important motivator of tourism, and are used in the development and marketing plans of most destinations. Equally, ‘event management’ is a growing field in which tourists constitute a potential market for planned events and the tourism industry has become a vital stakeholder in their success and attractiveness.

2.2.2 Events tourism

The term ‘events tourism’ was not widely used, if at all, prior to 1987 when The New Zealand Tourist and Publicity Department (1987) reported: ‘Event tourism is an important and rapidly growing segment of international tourism’ (Getz, 2007).
Events are becoming established as an integral and major part of tourism development and marketing strategies. They are important because they provide economic support and authenticity. Many cities rely on the revenue from these events and events tourism can enhance a destination’s image development.
Event tourism could be defined as the ‘systematic development, planning, marketing and holding of events as tourist attractions’. The goals of event tourism are ‘to create a favorable image for a destination, to expand the traditional tourist season, to spread tourist demand more evenly through an area, and to attract foreign and domestic visitors’ (Tassiopoulos, 2005, p. 4).
Local and regional events can have an advantage of keeping the domestic tourism market active. Smaller local events can make event tourists believe that they are participating in an authentically indigenous activity (Getz, 1991, p. 127, quoted in Tassiopoulos, 2005, p. 5)
Events are playing a significant role in tourism and culture; governments now support and promote events as part of their strategies for economic development and destination marketing.

2.2.3 Events and Tourism in the context of economic downturn

In contrast to previous economic downturns, the current crisis has a global impact that has hit tourism services with particular force (UNWTO, 2009). The global recession has seriously affected the UK leisure and tourism industry and the market is currently facing its most difficult trading climate for many years (Key Note, 2009).
The tourism industry has experienced many financial crises over the years, yet there remain large knowledge gaps about the financial behavior and strategies of firms under financial stress. In addition, little is known about the impacts of financial and economic crises on event sponsorship, business meetings, and corporate travel (Sheldon and Dwyer, 2010)
Both business and consumer confidence were affected, especially with the continuing uncertainties about unemployment and other factors such as exchange rates and the availability of credit. Furthermore, tourists economize on the duration of their stay, scale back their expenditure per night, and tend to sacrifice secondary holidays rather than their main holidays (ETC 2009).
As being part of Tourism industry Events sector was affected by economic downturn as well. For example, the British Meetings & Events Industry Survey reported a sharp drop in spending on corporate events: 33% of respondents saw a reduction in the number of events; 22% reported a reduction in the duration of their events; and 26% reported a reduction in the number of participants (Rob Davidson, 2009). The economic recession of 2008 and 2009 has affected the exhibitions and conferences industry itself (Key Note, 2009).
‘A restructuring of the industry is a necessary outcome from this crisis, and an opportunity for strategic reflection and re-visioning of the tourism product by both private and public sectors are evident’ (Sheldon and Dwyer, 2010).
Due to heavy costs involved in holding events and due to current financial situation, it is important for organizers to find ways to reduce costs. Therefore, it is beneficiary to devote volunteers.
Getz (2007, p. 286) indicated that ‘events have unique human resource needs and challenges, especially because of their usual reliance on volunteer’. Monga (2006) highlighted that the decision to get volunteer labor is typically based on the need to create an event or activity greater than its immediate financial resources would allow. That is why it is vital for volunteer managers to create an appropriate method to obtain, maintain, and retain suitable volunteer labor.
Farrell et al. (1998, p. 288) points out that ‘many major sporting events depend on volunteer labor and that the volunteer team is a critical part of the overall success of many major sporting competitions’. Therefore it is necessary that organizers understand volunteer motivation and their satisfaction with the volunteering experience in order to respond effectively to management needs in the areas of recruitment, retention, and daily operations.
Elstad (2003, p. 99) notes that ‘many event organizations spend considerable resources in recruiting and training volunteers’. Because volunteers are not dependent on the event or festival economically, it is much easier for them to quit as a volunteer compared to quitting in their paid jobs. It is, therefore, quite a challenge to ensure that individuals continue as volunteers in the future.

2.2.4 Volunteering and unemployment

In the past years volunteering has increasingly attracted the interest of many researchers. However, there are relatively limited studies on the impact of job loss on volunteering. Straus (2008) highlighted that these studies are ‘cross-sectional’ and they do not systematically analyze gender differences in the role of volunteering for unemployed.

The total number unemployed in the UK is currently 2.49 million (7.9% of the population) following hundreds of thousands of job losses in 2009. According to the latest forecast from the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development unemployment will peak at 2.8 million in 2010 (BBC News, 2009).
‘Employment rates have fallen for the UK and across the country, with Northern Ireland and Wales having the largest falls, the number of jobs in the UK has fallen, unemployment and the claimant count have increased in all regions’ (Jenkins & Leaker, 2009).
Hill (2009) highlighted that increasing unemployment has focused attention on volunteering as a potential route back to work. One survey found that 88 per cent of unemployed respondents believed that their volunteering would help them get a job (Hirst, 2001). Another found that three-quarters of those aged 16-25 thought that volunteering could have a positive effect on career progression (v, 2008).
‘In Great Britain, the recognition of volunteering as a policy-relevant measure for social integration has a long tradition’ (Susanne Strauß, 2008, p.18). A series of programme, such as Opportunities for Volunteering Fund in 1982 or the Community Opportunities programme in 1998 was launched to support the participation of the unemployed in volunteer work and to promote volunteer work as an alternative labour market instrument (Strauß, 2008). ‘The government has recently invested £8 million in a volunteer brokerage scheme for jobseekers over the next two years’ (Hill, 2009, p.2)
Straus (2008, p. 227) found out that ‘volunteers are more likely to find new employment than non-volunteers. Therefore, volunteering has a positive effect on re-employment chances’. ‘Volunteering can be seen as a route to new or re-/employment for many people; volunteering can develop skills for employability and for new career pathways’ (Volunteering England, 2008).
However, the three largest quantitative studies in the UK to date (Gay and Hatch, 1983; Gay 1998; Hirst, 2001) all fail to establish a direct statistical link between volunteering and job outcomes (Hill, 2009). Therefore there is no clear evidence of the link between volunteering and unemployment, and further studies and research are required.
There is significant number of reports from volunteer-involving organizations (VIOs) of major increases in enquiries about volunteering. The average volunteer centre in London has seen a 90 % increase in the number of people inquiring about opportunities for placements in the past year, according to the umbrella body for volunteer centres in the capital. Increased demand for volunteering is largely a result of rising unemployment in the recession (Kaye Wiggins, 2009).
The research shows that over the past six months, 86% of Volunteer Centres have seen an increase in volunteering enquiries, which represents a further increase on data collected in March 2009 (Volunteering England, 2009).11 % of charities have increased their drive for more volunteers, up from 7 % in survey six months previously (Charities and the economic downturn Charity Commission, September 2009)
‘While research has so far failed to produce convincing statistical proof demonstrating that people who volunteer have an advantage over non-volunteers in the job market, there is a growing body of evidence about what people gain from their volunteering’ (Rochester, 2009, p.7). The benefits include gaining practical experience, acquiring skills, improving interpersonal skills, keeping active and involved, excluding gaps in CV.
Traditionally volunteering is seen as an altruistic act, but due to current situation people seeking route back into employment and therefore many see volunteering as way to gain new skills and get ‘head-start’ in a job market, because volunteering can improve their employability and provide a better chance of entering the labour market.
Volunteers could have different motives for offering their labor, knowledge, skills and time. It is important to understand whether unemployment and economic downturn has an impact on motives of volunteers in order to adopt a more systematic and professional method for their management. The next section explores core motivation’s theories in human resources followed by motives for volunteering.